How Learning Works: Seven Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching

#5. Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted feedback enhances the quality of students learning.

It is important to acknowledge that all practice is not equal. p. 124

Principle: Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted feedback are critical to learning. p. 125

“Practice” [is defined as] any activity in which students engage their knowledge or skills, [while “feedback” is] information given to students about their performance that guides future behavior. However, the full potential of practice and feedback is not realized unless the two are combined. . . . Practice produces observed performance that, in turn, allows tor targeted feedback, and then the feedback guides further practice. . . . Goals can direct the nature of focused practice, provide the basis for evaluating observed performance, and shaper the targeted feedback that guides students’ future efforts. pp. 125-127

Learning and performance are best fostered when students engage in practice that (a) focuses on a specific goal or criterion on performance, (b) targets an appropriate level of challenge relative to students’ current performance, and (c) is of sufficient quantity and frequency to meet the performance criteria. p. 127

The amount of time someone spends in deliberate practice is what predicts continued learning in a given field, rather than time spent in generic practice. p. 127 Goals provide students with a focus for their learning, which leads to more time an energy going to that area of focus. . . . Students who had specific goals when they were learning from a text paid more attention to passages that were relevant to their goals and hence learned those passages better. . . . A key challenge in providing goal-directed practice is that instructors often think they are conveying specific goals to students when, in fact, they are not. . . . As experts, we often see things very differently from our students. p. 128

When instructors do not clearly articulate their goals, it is difficult for students to know what (or how) to practice. . . . Giving students the goal of “understanding a key concept” tells rather little about the nature or level of understanding. . . . In contrast, the goal of “recognizing when a key concept is at issue” or “explaining the key concept to a particular” or “applying the key concept to solve problems” are more concrete and directive. . . . The notion of articulating goals in a measurable way still leaves open the question (to students and instructors) of how much of a particular measurable quality is enough for the goal to be achieved. . . . Clearly specified performance criteria can help direct students’ practice and ultimately their learning. p. 129 [A rubric which is shared] with students when an assignment is distributed leads to better outcomes—both in terms of work produced and students’ knowledge of the qualities associated with good work. p. 130

To ensure that students’ practice has a significant effect on learning, the practice they do should be at an appropriate level of challenge and, as necessary accompanied by the appropriate amount and type of support. An appropriate level of challenge is neither too hard (the student struggles, makes many errors, and possibly gives up) nor too easy (the student completes the goals without much effort and is not pushed to improve). pp. 130-131 Adding structure and support—also called instructional scaffolding—to a practice activity . . . promotes learning when it helps students practice the target skills at an appropriate level of challenge. . . . Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development [refers to] a task that the student cannot perform successfully on his or her own but could perform successfully with some help from another person or group. . . . [This] instructional support does not need to come directly from another person to be helpful. p. 131

Even if students have engaged in high-quality practice, they still need a sufficient quantity of practice [referred to as time on task] for the benefits to accumulate. Both professors and student underestimate the need for practice. Students often assume that when they can perform a task on one occasion in one context, their knowledge is secure when, in fact, it is much more difficult than that (see Chapter 4). . . . Although it is true that the benefits of practice accrue gradually, it is important to note that the knowledge or skill gained by a given amount of additional practice often depends on where the student is in his or her learning process. p. 134

In the early and late phases of learning, it is all the more important for instructors to highlight for students how their performance is changing or to provide more refined goals and criteria so that students can discern that they are improving. p. 135

Implications. To achieve the most effective learning, students need sufficient practice that is focused on a specific goal or set of goals and is at an appropriate level of challenge. The befits of using a given amount of practice time more efficiently be focusing student’s efforts on what they need to learn . . . and setting their goals for performance at a reasonable and productive level of challenge. p. 136

Goal directed practice must be coordinated with targeted feedback in order to promote the greatest learning gains. The purpose of feedback is to help learners achieve a desired level of performance. . . . Effective feedback provides information about a learner’s current state of knowledge and performance that can guide him or her in working toward the learning goal. . . . Effective feedback can tell students what they are or are not understanding, where their performance is going well or poorly, and how they should direct their subsequent efforts. p. 137 Research points to two features of feedback that make students’ learning more effective and efficient: content and timing. First, feedback should communicate to students where they are relative to the stated goal and what they need to do to improve. Second, feedback should provide this information when students can make the most use of it, based on the learning goals and structure of activities you have set for them. . . . The content and timing of feedback need to be considered in terms of the learning goals we have for our students, students’ incoming level of knowledge and proficiency, and the practical constraints of the course. p. 138

Feedback is most effective when it explicitly communicates to students about some specific aspect of their performance relative to specific target criteria, and when it provides information that helps students progress toward meeting those criteria. . . . Feedback, which informs students’ subsequent learning, is often called formative feedback. In contrast, summative feedback is that which gives a final judgment or evaluation of proficiency, such as grades or scores. . . . Effective feedback involves giving students a clear picture of how their current knowledge or performance differs from the goal and providing information on adjustments that can help students adjust to reach the goal. p. 139 Although grades and scores provide some information on the degree to which students’ performance has met the criteria, they do not explain which aspects did or did not meet the criteria and how. . . . Feedback that is specific to the processes students are engaging in (for example, helping students to properly approach a problem or to detect their own errors; see Chapter Seven) has been associated with deeper learning. Too much feedback tends to overwhelm students and fails to communicate which aspects of their performance deviates most from the goal and where they should focus their future efforts. p. 140 Targeted feedback gives students prioritized information about how their performance does or does not meet the criteria so they can understand how to improve their future performance. . . . The full benefits of feedback can only be realized when the feedback adequately directs students’ subsequent practices and when students have the capacity to incorporate that feedback into further practice. p. 141

Consider the appropriate timing of feedback. This involves both how soon feedback is given (typically, earlier is better) as well as how often (typically, more frequently is better). . . . Generally, more frequent feedback leads to more efficient learning because it helps students stay on track and address their errors before they become entrenched. . . . Research shows that even minimal feedback on students’ writing can lead to better second drafts because the feedback gives students a better sense of what their readers do and do not understand. p. 142 Research does not mean, however, that greater frequency of feedback is always better. Again, timeliness of the feedback is a significant factor. . . . The feedback must (1) focus students on the key knowledge and skills you want then to learn, (2) be provided at a time and frequency when students will be most likely to use it, and (3) be linked to additional opportunities for students. . . . Each of these aspects of feedback must align with the goals you have set for students’ learning. p. 143 Feedback [should not] undermine students’ progress in becoming independent, self-regulated learners. Giving too little detail in feedback can leave students unclear on what they need to do to improve, whereas giving too much detail can overwhelm them or mislead them as to what aspects are higher priority. Similarly, giving feedback too infrequently can leave students floundering. . . . The instructor’s time in composing or tailoring feedback and the students’ time in processing and responding to feedback is a key consideration in guiding how and when to give feedback. . . . All feedback need not be tailored to individual students, and it need not all come from the instructor. p. 144

Strategies Address the Need for Goal-Directed Practice

Conduct a prior knowledge assessment to target an appropriate challenge level
Be more explicit about your goals in your course materials
Use a rubric to specify and communicate performance criteria
Build in multiple opportunities for practice
Build scaffolding into assignments
Set expectations about practice
Give examples or models of target performance
Show students what you do not want
Refine your goals and performance criteria as the course progresses pp. 145-148

Strategies Addressing the Need for Targeted Feedback

Look for patterns of errors in student work
Prioritize your feedback
Balance strength and weakness in your feedback
Design frequent opportunities to give feedback
Provide feedback at the group level
Provide real-time feedback at the group level
Incorporate peer feedback
Require student to specify how they used feedback in subsequent work pp. 148-152